This information is not part of the actions required to accomplish something but is there to provide reference information and background knowledge to support the user in understanding the requirements of the written procedures. A shipboard operating and maintenance manual usually contains multiple written procedures and declarative information such as system information (which describes the internal working of the equipment/system) and utilisation information (describing the circumstances in which the equipment/system may be used) (Karreman 2004). The contents of the instructions must cover not only the intended use of the machinery but also take into account any reasonably foreseeable misuse thereof. For example, the European Machinery Directive (Directive 2006), to which seagoing vessels are exempt, states in its essential health and safety requirements 1.1.2(c): Rules, however, are not there to merely prescribe what to do, they can, where risks are identified prescribe what not to do. In an organisational setting, control or to be more accurate pervasive control is a widely employed term in discussing the implementation of rules to standardise work processes and regulate behaviour (Johnson & Gill 1993 Lawton 1998 Antonsen et al. To put this in context, the spectrum of rules remains ubiquitous throughout a seafarer’s career and exposure to rules whether they be rule of law, statutory rules, corporate policy, standing orders, safety procedures, manufacturers guidance or best practices are all intended, as Twining and Miers put it, ‘to point out the manner in which it will be least perilous to act’. Although a valid application, it contrasts with an application of the term with rule of thumb, which is described by Twining and Miers ( 2010) as ‘useful guides, but even when accepted do not provide reasons for action in themselves’ (p. There is a tendency to align the term rule with mandatory rule and its common association with regulation and consequence. A common sobriquet for a rule is a procedural step, forming part a written procedure which appears as interchangeable terms in the broad body of literature forming the subject matter. So, a procedure is a series of actions which are governed by a set of rules. The Oxford English Dictionary ( 1989) describes a procedure as ‘a series of actions done to accomplish something’ and a rule as one of ‘a set of explicit regulations or principles governing a procedure within a particular area of activity’. The factors that support or impede this acquisition are described and supported by a number of accident reports and academic studies. This paper does not offer specific advice on the design of shipboard procedures however, the process of acquiring a mental action plan is discussed. It is suggested that this may only be achieved by ensuring that seafarer prior knowledge is sufficient, writer’s anticipation of this knowledge is accurate and communication of new knowledge is explicit. Shipboard written procedures are described in terms of a negotiation of meaning between writer and seafarer, where successful execution of a shipboard task requires an accurate interpretation, by the seafarer, of the writer’s intentions. ![]() It is suggested in this paper that a holistic approach is needed to ensure that the approval of technical systems, seafarer training and written procedures are inextricably linked. This may suggest a nexus among technical systems, seafarer competence, shipboard procedures and accidents at sea. Maritime accident reports frequently cite poor procedures as contributing factors towards maritime accidents. It also recognises that an over-reliance reflects a failure to equip seafarers with the appropriate prior knowledge. This paper advocates the use of shipboard procedures as a strategy for bridging the knowledge gap.
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